Following Charlemagne's death in 814, his empire experienced immediate territorial and political fragmentation that culminated in the Treaty of Verdun (843), permanently dividing the Carolingian Empire into three distinct kingdoms.
Charlemagne's son Louis the Pious inherited the unified empire but faced mounting challenges from his own sons who demanded territorial divisions according to Frankish inheritance customs. The empire endured devastating civil wars (830-843) as Louis's sons—Lothair, Louis the German, and Charles the Bald—fought for territorial control, weakening central authority and inviting external invasions from Vikings, Magyars, and Saracens.
The treaty established three kingdoms based on linguistic, cultural, and strategic considerations. The Western Frankish Kingdom (Francia Occidentalis) went to Charles the Bald, encompassing present-day France west of the Rhône, Saône, and Meuse rivers. This territory contained approximately 2.5 million inhabitants speaking evolving Romance languages and would eventually become France.
Lothair I received Middle Francia (Lotharingia), a narrow corridor stretching from the North Sea to central Italy, including the imperial title and capitals of Aachen and Rome. This awkward territorial configuration included the Rhineland, Burgundy, Provence, and northern Italy. Louis the German obtained the Eastern Frankish Kingdom (Francia Orientalis), comprising Germanic-speaking territories east of the Rhine River, which would eventually evolve into the Holy Roman Empire.
Each kingdom developed distinct governmental structures adapted to local conditions. The division fragmented Charlemagne's administrative innovations, as counts, dukes, and bishops transferred loyalty to their respective kings. Central authority weakened significantly, accelerating feudalization as local nobles gained independence.
The Verdun division established the fundamental political geography of medieval Europe. Middle Francia proved unstable and was eventually absorbed by its neighbors, while the western and eastern kingdoms evolved into France and Germany respectively, creating enduring Franco-German territorial rivalry that would shape European history for centuries.
